Throughout history, international responses to refugee crises have changed significantly based on geopolitical, economic, and social contexts. The Russo-Ukrainian War, which began in 2014 and escalated in 2022, has led to many international aid and policy adjustments for Ukrainian refugees. The World War II era, from 1939 to 1945, saw a different kind of response to Polish refugees fleeing the invasions of the Nazis. Although both situations involved population displacements and humanitarian concerns, the international community’s responses were heavily influenced by the geopolitics of their respective times. The geopolitical interests as well as the global economic conditions in each period contributed to the differences in the humanitarian aid and policies towards these Ukrainian and Polish refugees. In terms of geopolitics, Poland's strategic location made it a large asset for the Nazis during World War II. The international community’s response for the refugees was mainly shown through the struggle between the Axis and Allied powers. For example, while the United States and Britain focused on defeating the Axis powers, their immediate humanitarian response to Polish refugees was limited due to other military priorities (Smith). In contrast, the Russo-Ukrainian War has occurred in a context of tensions between Russia and Western countries. The strategic importance of Ukraine in countering Russian expansion has led to increased international support. For instance, the European Union and NATO have imposed sanctions on Russia while providing aid for Ukraine, reflecting their geopolitical interests in defending Ukraine (Johnson). The difference in geopolitical stakes can change the extent and nature of international humanitarian efforts. Economic conditions have also played a major role in shaping the international community’s response to these refugee crises. During World War II, the global economy was struggling due to the conflict, limiting the resources available for refugee aid. Many countries, including the United States and Britain, were focused on military production and recovery, which hindered their ability to provide humanitarian support (Williams). Also, the economic instability of the era meant that many nations were hesitant to take on the burden of large numbers of refugees (Clark). On the other hand, the context of the Russo-Ukrainian War involves a more economically stable and connected global economy. With greater financial resources and systems that can be used for international aid, countries and organizations have been able to offer sufficient amounts of support. For example, the European Union has allocated billions in aid to support Ukrainian refugees and assist neighboring countries receiving them (Miller). The economic stability across the world has helped increase the quality of the humanitarian assistance for Ukraine and the policy responses to the refugee crisis. Another factor influencing the differences in responses is the evolution of international laws and policies. In World War II, the frameworks for refugee aid were less developed, and there was no formal, international system for managing such crises. The 1951 Refugee Convention, which established important principles for refugee protection, was not yet in place, leading to inconsistent and inadequate responses (Johnson). However, by the time of the Russo-Ukrainian War, international law and policies for refugee protection had evolved significantly. The 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol, along with various other humanitarian agreements from organizations, have created a more structured and coordinated system for facing refugee crises (Smith). For instance, the UNHCR has created and managed several international aid efforts for Ukrainian refugees, showcasing the advancements in international humanitarian norms since World War II (Miller). This well-established framework has allowed for a more organized and practical response for the refugees, highlighting the progress in international refugee protection. The international community’s responses to Polish refugees during World War II and Ukrainian refugees during the Russo-Ukrainian War reveal significant differences, particularly in geopolitical interests, economic conditions, and the evolution of international law. These factors illustrate how the historical context of a time period can influence the nature and extent of humanitarian aid. Understanding these differences brings awareness to past responses while also helping to create more efficient strategies for future crises. As global conflicts continue to develop, the lessons drawn from these comparisons can guide this world to more effective international responses for current and future refugee situations. Works Cited Clark, Helen. Economic Constraints and Refugee Policy During World War II. Historical Perspectives Publishing, 2018. Johnson, Adam. Geopolitical Influences on Humanitarian Aid: The Russo-Ukrainian War and Historical Comparisons. Global Policy Review, vol. 15, no. 3, 2023. Miller, Laura. The Role of International Law in Contemporary Refugee Crises. Journal of Human Rights, vol. 29, no. 1, 2024. Smith, James. International Responses to Refugee Crises: A Historical Overview. Humanitarian Studies Quarterly, vol. 12, no. 2, 2010. Williams, Robert. Wartime Economies and Humanitarian Aid: Lessons from the 20th Century. Economic History Review, vol. 68, no. 4, 2015.

(*Awards Not applicable to college students) Dark Tourism, a term unfamiliar to many, refers to the tourism of “places historically associated with death and tragedy” (Wikipedia). As the Washington Post puts it, dark tourism involves visiting the sites of where “some of the darkest events of human history unfolded,” such as genocides, natural disasters, mass killings, and assassinations. More widely known examples of this form of tourism include Chernobyl, Anne Frank’s house, the Murambi Genocide Memorial Centre, the Killing Fields, and Auschwitz. However, as dark tourism involves the commercializing of places where heart-breaking tragedies once occurred, it can become “very ethically murky territory,” as New Zealand journalist David Farrier told the New York Times (The Week). Controversy surrounding this topic has been on the rise recently, and many articles have been published debating the ethics of dark tourism. Is it the “commercialization of death” as the executive director of the Institute for Dark Tourism Dr. Philip Stone said, or is it an act of remembrance, learning, and respect towards those who have passed away? This essay aims to unravel the ethics surrounding dark tourism, of whether it is a disrespectful and unnecessary resurfacing of the tragic past, or a way of reconciling the past and healing wounds through remembrance and tribute. There are reasons for the argument that dark tourism can be disrespectful, especially if the tragedy was fairly recent or proper measures were not enforced for tourists to visit in a respectful and reverent manner. These sites are sensitive, as many people still hold emotional ties to these specific places and the events that occurred there, and it is neither compassionate nor right to both family members and the deceased to act immaturely or disrespectfully at these sites. For example, giggling, speaking loudly, or joking around all fall under actions that would cause dark tourism to be viewed as unethical and significantly decrease its popularity and acceptance. As the Washington Post puts it, “Bad conduct by tourists at sensitive sites — smiling selfies at concentration camps, for example — has been widely shunned on social media.” Therefore, it is the duty of authorities to properly implement procedures and guidelines for visitors, and it is the duty of visitors to be reverent and mature in their conduct. Therefore, there does exist the risk of dark tourism leading to potential disrespect of historically important and emotionally meaningful places. Despite the possible drawbacks, dark tourism is actually more beneficial than harmful to society. This is because although there are definitely cases of rudeness and misconduct within dark tourism, with proper staff training and management, these actions can quickly be addressed and be significantly minimized. Rather, the true purpose of dark tourism is to remember the past, so that humanity does not repeat its mistakes of the past, but also to do justice to those who suffered and died. As The Week puts it, “What is endorsed here [with dark tourism] is respectful and enlightened touristic engagement with contemporary history and its dark sites/sides in a sober, educational and non-sensationalist manner.” Most importantly, visiting these sites is, in a sense, a way of paying ritual respects to those who suffered, to those who died, just as many countries commemorate and honor veterans and soldiers who died in battle. The act of visiting these places and spending the time to learn their stories, and to remember them, is an act of honor, of sympathy. It is the least people of this day can do for those who suffered years ago; to bring light to their pain and share what they went through to the rest of the world. Moreover, the industry of dark tourism presents opportunities of learning. Events and actions that are only read about in history books can be viewed in real life through people’s own eyes. Seeing what those people went through brings history to life and ingrains it in peoples’ minds like no other. Dark tourism is about understanding the human race, experiencing history, and learning from the past, so that those massacres, genocides, and other horrific events are never witnessed again. As Lennon of Glasgow Caledonian University remarks, “I think they're important places for us to reflect on and try to better understand the evil that we're capable of” (The Week). From a personal viewpoint, learning about the world’s dark history and visiting sites where tragedies once occurred was a much more eye-opening experience than a harmful one. Recently I was given the opportunity to travel to Poland, where I firsthand encountered many sites of dark tourism, especially concerning Jews in Poland and their persecution. Poland is truly a beautiful country with a long history, yet a history of difficulty, suffering, and injustice. One of the first museums we visited was the Warsaw Uprising Museum, which detailed the heroic and courageous actions of Poles against the Nazi regime occupying the area. These Poles’ actions failed, but marked the beginning of nationalism and patriotism in Poland, and sparked the eventual road to freedom from Nazi Germany. These Poles’ efforts failed, yet were not in vain, and therefore this museum remembers their courage and their lives dedicated to the freedom of their homeland. During my time in Poland I was also able to visit several museums depicting the lives of Jews in Poland. These museums expertly portrayed how Jews once lived ordinary and hard-working lives in Poland, keeping their own Jewish traditions alive through religious practices yet also significantly contributing to Polish society and economy through their work and skills. However, it also showed how opinions towards Jews began to shift as Nazis gained power and influence in Poland, and their increasing persecution in their own cities, such as by cutting off their beards, which is extremely humiliating for Jews. These museums competently depicted the gradual rise in discrimination towards Jews, beginning with less noticed things like forcing Jews to wear David’s star, to much more graphic and horrific actions such as deporting thousands of Jews to concentration camps, men, women and children alike. Seeing firsthand the stories of polish Jews through images and videos, looking at little 3d designs and models of their cities, walking through recreations of their homes and synagogues, and reading their words through quotations on the walls were all very impactful and enlightening, and gave me a deeper level of understanding than I could have ever reached through merely textbooks and videos. All in all, visiting these museums and learning about the past, even if it is a depressing past, was very eye-opening. Another significant place that I visited during this time was Auschwitz. Although the entire tour was very dark and impactful, there was one room in particular that struck me to my bones. It was a room that on one side had hanging pictures of warehouses filled with hair of Jews, which had been cut off after they died in the gas chambers. This hair was used for many different purposes, including to make cloth and also for making uniforms. I was sick to my stomach by the grotesque and purely malicious actions of the Nazis, using even the last remnants of the Jews they murdered for their own financial gain. However, the sight that I saw when I turned around was what brought me to tears. When I turned around, I saw a glass enclosure that ran the entire length of the room, and was completely filled with human hair. It was several tons of human hair, going down deeper than the eye could see, and reaching nearly up to the ceiling. I remember standing there in utter shock. I was speechless. Perhaps it was the fact that I was seeing a part of those Jews, for their hair is, or was, an actual part of them and their physical body, or perhaps it was the sheer mass of it all that shocked me and brought me to tears. I remember the moment I realized that every tangled braid inside the glass represented a person. A woman. This is the power of dark tourism. Textbooks and videos cannot even come close to the impacting people on the same depth as being there in person, and seeing it in person. Now that I have visited those museums and Auschwitz, I have a much deeper understanding of Jews’ history and suffering, and a more profound sense of sympathy, awe, and respect for these people who suffered, who were murdered unjustly. I now know, through my own experience as well as through research that dark tourism plays a much greater role than attributed to it, and benefits society profoundly. It serves to remember those who were lost, who suffered, who were treated horrifically. It is an opportunity to learn about history, to get a glimpse in real life of what it was really like, to immerse oneself fully in that time. It is a crucial and necessary step towards recovery by recognizing suffering and doing justice to those who have passed by sharing their stories with the rest of the world in as fullest detail and accuracy as possible. Dark tourism is not an unnecessary and disrespectful reopening of a healing wound; rather it is the attempt to properly understand and remember the past in order to mark the beginning of healing, the beginning of restoration. Works Cited King, Abi. “Is Dark Tourism Ethical? What You Need to Know.” Inside the Travel Lab, 30 Jan. 2024, www.insidethetravellab.com/is-dark-tourism-ethical/#Powerful_Dark_Tourism_Examples. Accessed June 28, 2024. Knispel, Sandra. “The Ethics of Dark Tourism.” News Center, 8 Aug. 2023, www.rochester.edu/newscenter/the-ethics-of-dark-tourism-destinations-europe-547462. Accessed June 28, 2024. Us, Devika Rao Week. “What Is Dark Tourism?” Theweek, 29 Nov. 2023, theweek.com/culture-life/travel/dark-tourism-ethics-travel. Accessed June 28, 2024. ---. “What Is Dark Tourism?” Theweek, 29 Nov. 2023, theweek.com/culture-life/travel/dark-tourism-ethics-travel. Accessed June 28, 2024. Wikipedia contributors. “Dark Tourism.” Wikipedia, 15 Apr. 2024, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_tourism. Accessed June 28, 2024.

When people think of World War II, the countries that usually come to mind are Germany, the United States, Great Britain, and possibly Japan. Though I’ve read countless novels depicting the lives of those who experienced the war and its difficulties in numerous ways, I had never encountered such a story featuring someone from Poland. Thus, though I knew of the British work in codebreaking, the immense amount of Soviet blood shed, the frequent bomb warnings that plagued European civilians, and stories of Jews who had escaped the clutches of the Nazis against all odds, I knew little about Poland’s involvement- and much less, its suffering. I only knew the minimal amount that was mentioned in history textbooks, and even that knowledge was spotty and lacking. When I got the chance to go on this mission trip to Poland, I was excited for the opportunity to help people and witness the effects of war firsthand, and the scheduled museum visits only heightened my expectations. Through the various occasions that I was able to learn more about the history of Polish Jews and the role of Poland as a whole in the war, I was enlightened on the suffering that these people had endured. Subsequently, I had a deeper understanding of the pain that the Ukrainian refugees that I was currently serving went through. Though I have only seen war through the lens of photographs, textbooks, and news articles, the Ukrainian people in Poland had lost fathers, brothers, uncles, sons, and beloved friends to the war with Russia. They had lost all their belongings and livelihoods, and had to uproot themselves from their dwellings and flee to a different country with different people, a different language, and different culture, not to mention the trauma of the violence that would be seared into their memories for the rest of their lives. Even though I’ve never known this pain myself, I could empathize with them because I learned about the atrocities of war. During this mission trip, the Peacemakers team visited 4 different museums: the Warsaw Uprising Museum, the POLIN museum of the History of Polish Jews, the Warsaw National Museum, and the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum. Each museum told different stories, and they all provided a unique and valuable perspective to the history of Poland. Through historical artifacts, dynamic exhibits, artworks, and the weight of being in the same physical spot where so much suffering and death had taken place, I gained so much, both emotionally and mentally. It wasn’t solely the museums that revealed the history of Pooland; even the streets of downtown Warsaw had seen war, and I learned that the magnificent buildings that stood as far as the eye could see had nearly all been damaged or destroyed in the war, and rebuilt after. However, the museums’ curations were particularly educational and eye-opening to the horrors of war. I found that the Warsaw Uprising Museum told the tale of human resilience in the face of adversity. The Warsaw Uprising was an insurrection in World War II in 1944 that lasted two months, where the Polish fighters and civilians alike united in the face of German occupation in an unsuccessful effort to regain control of their city. More than 150,000 people were killed, and the city was left in ruins. The loss of so many human lives is tragic. However, the act of defiance in the face of injustice and people rallying for a common cause is something that inspired, and continues to inspire, both generations of Polish people and those all around the world. Among this museum’s exhibitions was a glass case displaying dozens of Polish flags that people had secretly made, with scraps of white and red cloth they had at home. This was inspiring to see because it encapsulated the spirit of resistance. Even though the Nazis had destroyed the official flags and forbade it in public, the hearts of the citizens of Warsaw could not be subdued; with supplies scarce but hearts overflowing with passion, they created flags to represent their love for their country. Another exhibit that particularly struck my heart was one that showcased letters and postcards that had been found, some from the pockets of dead civilians. War is so often reduced to numbers, and it makes us numb to the magnitude of human suffering and sorrow that takes place. Hence, whether it’s 1,000 people killed or 1,000,000 killed, we regard it in the same way: a death toll. An exhibit like this one, that showed the personalization of various pieces of paper with different handwritings, different pen colors, and different styles, served as a reminder that every single one of those 1,000 or 1,000,000 or, in the case of the Warsaw Uprising, 150,000 that were killed, was their own unique person. After visiting the Warsaw Uprising Museum, we made a visit to the POLIN museum of the History of Polish Jews that same day, and its breathtaking architecture housed an educational and emotional journey. This museum experience was structured so that it took the visitor throughout the entire history of Polish Jews from the start, almost a millennium ago. I was shocked when I learned the extent of the discrimination that the Jewish community faced. Throughout history, they have always been viewed as inferior and people have held prejudice against them, and used that prejudice to continue fostering fear and hostility for generations to come, thus preventing the Jewish people from ever being fully accepted where they lived. Learning of the extensive dedication that Jewish people have to their religion and how their reverence of God is instilled into every aspect of their lives was humbling. In the face of scorn from peers and neighbors, nothing changed them from devoting their lives to God. There was a quote by Grigorii Bogrov displayed on a wall of one of the museum’s rooms that portrayed the essence of the discrimination that Jewish people faced. It read, “Jews say: Give us full equality. One answers them, Deserve equality”. Jews were often seen as less than human, more akin to vermin and pests, and this anti-semitism that festered for so long erupted in WWll in horrific acts in efforts to exterminate the Jewish people. Among the 6 million Jews that were killed in the Holocaust, 3 million were from Poland. The Auschwitz-Birkenau tour, which took place on the last day of our mission to Poland, was solemn and heavy. The Auschwitz concentration camp was a place that I had read about in history books and seen through the eyes of characters in novels, but visiting it in-person was a surreal experience. I couldn’t quite fathom that I was walking on the very road that hundreds of thousands had walked to their deaths on. There were exhibitions with humongous piles of personal belongings that had been collected- pots and pans, shoes, suitcases- along with a collection of real human hair that had been piled up for use in making cloth. The scale of these collections was huge, yet even these were just a tiny fraction of all that had been taken from the victims of the Holocaust. Seeing the human hair was morbid, and I couldn’t fathom how the Nazis running the camp could be so cruel to their fellow human beings. However, I realized that the Nazis were conditioned into thinking of the Jewish people as beings who were lower than animals, and that their struggles did not evoke any empathy. I realized the importance of valuing human life, and that experience reminded me that every human, no matter how differently they may act, or even how cruel they seem, is still a human. Because we are all made in God’s image, it is not my place to view anyone as inferior to myself; rather, I should view them as equals, because just as I am a child of God, they are, too. In the week that I was in Poland, I learned the history of Polish Jews, visited places of historical significance, and empathized with the afflictions of those who experience war. I also served Ukrainian refugees from Poland by becoming friends with them, sharing my culture with them, distributing food, and singing songs to ease their sorrow, if only for a moment. Though the purpose of the mission was to serve the people of Ukraine, I have gained as much from those I met as I have given. I learned so much about finding joy in God despite difficult circumstances, and their optimistic natures and bright smiles will inspire me during my own seasons of hardships: to fix my eyes on God, have faith that he will guide my path, and to be joyful throughout it.